Sexting and youth : a multidisciplinary examination of research, theory, and law

Sexting among youth, the use of mobile technology to create and share sexual content and sexually explicit images of themselves and peers, has become a notable issue in recent years in the fields of social science, law, and public policy. This text synthesizes research findings and presents a comprehensive review of the topic in a multidisciplinary format. It is a timely and readable book fit for use in undergraduate and graduate classrooms, as well as college and public libraries.

Sexting and Youth offers students and scholars a tool for understanding recent developments in this previously uncharted area, making contributions in the relevant fields and subfields of the topic. Chapters review introductory matters like the concepts and context surrounding youth sexting and the results of prevalence studies and the research methodologies used in determining the number of youths engaging in sexting. Chapters then consider social science matters like personal and behavioral motivations, adolescent sexual development and risky behavior associations, as well as cultural and sociological facets such as sex and technology and media activity and impact. The text concludes with chapters that analyze possible formal and informal social control techniques, including justice system issues, alternative responses or approaches, constitutional and privacy concerns, civil liability and tort questions, and education system liability. Bringing together many perspectives and reviewing theory and research from a variety of disciplines, this text presents youth sexting with new clarity, while exposing all of its complexity. It is the first of its kind, a comprehensive and multidisciplinary review of the topic.

Contributing authors include, among others, researchers and faculty from the University of Texas Medical Branch and UT Prevention Research Center, The Ohio State University, University of Louisville (Brandeis) School of Law, and the Australian Institute of Criminology.

Amidst the call for effective policy and practice responses, cogent analysis that places teen sexting into its appropriate developmental and legal context has emerged as a vital imperative. Hiestand and Weins's book provides such context and offers a useful guide and resource for [those] concerned about the safety and well-being of young people growing up in the digital age.
-- Andrew J. Harris, Ph.D., Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Programs, University of Massachusetts Lowell

In this new and deeply informative work, editors Hiestand and Weins bring together an array of academics with expertise in law, technology, education, and youth. This book is highly recommended to anyone who is seeking a deeper understanding of this topic or insights into how this risky and challenging behavior may evolve with new technologies.
-- Frederick S. Lane, J.D., author of Cybertraps for the Young, Obscene Profits, and The Decency Wars

• Preface p. xv
• Acknowledgments p. xvii
• Notes on Contributing Authors p. xix
• Part 1 Foundations
• 1 Concepts and Context p. 3 W. Jesse Weins
• The Term p. 3
• Characterizations p. 8
• Courtship for the Digital Age p. 9
• Exhibitionism or Entertainment p. 11
• Erotic Art and Media Production p. 13
• Self- or Peer-Produced and Electronically Distributed Child Pornography p. 14
• Identity Formation, Struggle, and Associated Cyberbullying p. 16
• Characterizations, Typologies, and Legal Frameworks p. 17
• Assumptions about Sexual Philosophy and Political Theory p. 21
• Conclusion p. 28
• Bibliography p. 29
• 2 Prevalence and Research Methodology p. 33 Reneè Lamphere
• General Prevalence and Frequency of Youth Sexting p. 34
• Prevalence and Demographic Factors p. 39
• Age p. 40
• Sex p. 41
• Race p. 42
• Other Findings of Interest p. 43
• Data on Sexual Behaviors p. 43
• Quantitative Research on Motivations p. 44
• Perceived Outcomes of Sexting p. 45
• Issues Related to Research Methodologies p. 46
• Conceptualization of Key Terminology p. 47
• Appropriate Research Design p. 48
• Data Collection Methods p. 49
• Sampling Population p. 50
• Survey Administration p. 50
• Areas for Future Study p. 54
• Diversified Samples p. 54
• Improving Research Designs p. 55
• Redirect the Focus of Future Research p. 56
• Conclusion p. 57
• Bibliography p. 58
• Part 2 Developmental and Sociological Perspectives
• 3 Sexual Behavior and Communication p. 63 Vi D. Le and Jeff R. Temple and Melissa Peskin and Christine Markham and Susan Tortolero
• Cell Phone Culture p. 66
• Pornography p. 66
• Sexting and Adolescent Sexuality p. 68
• Reasons for Sexting p. 68
• Flirtation p. 69
• For a Romantic Interest p. 70
• To Initiate Sex p. 70
• Pressured p. 71
• Attitudes towards Sexting p. 72
• Peer Influence and Social Norms p. 73
• Conclusion p. 73
• Bibliography p. 74
• 4 Risky Behavior and Adolescent Development p. 77 Jeff R. Temple and Vi D. Le and Melissa Peskin and Christine Markham and Susan Tortolero
• Risky Behavior p. 77
• Risky Sexual Behavior p. 78
• Co-Occurrence p. 81
• Risky Behavior or Normal Adolescent Development? p. 82
• Sexting p. 84
• How Prevalent Is Sexting? p. 84
• Are There Health Risks Associated with Sexting? p. 85
• Does Sexting Co-Occur with Risky Behaviors? p. 88
• Is Teen Sexting a Normal Part of Adolescent Sexual Development or Is It a Risky Behavior Indicative of or Precursor to Other Risky (Sexual) Behaviors? p. 90
• Bibliography p. 91
• 5 Technology and Culture p. 95 Jesse Fox and Bridget Potocki
• Affordances of Sexting p. 96
• Multimodality p. 97
• Anonymity p. 97
• Replicability, Scalability, and Persistence p. 98
• Editability p. 98
• Accessibility and Portability p. 99
• Theoretical Perspectives p. 99
• Technology Acceptance Model p. 100
• Social Penetration Theory p. 100
• Relationship Maintenance and Relational Dialectics p. 101
• Communication Privacy Management Theory p. 102
• Attachment Theory p. 103
• Sexual Script Theory p. 104
• Gender Schema Theory and Expectation States Theory p. 105
• Objectification Theory p. 107
• Theoretical Perspectives on Effects p. 108
• Social Cognitive Theory p. 109
• Hyperpersonal Model p. 111
• Third Person Effect p. 112
• The Future of Sexting p. 113
• Mobile Applications p. 114
• Avatar-Based Interactions p. 115
• Haptics p. 115
• Augmented Reality p. 116
• Future Research Directions p. 116
• Bibliography p. 117
• 6 Media Activity and Impact p. 123 Kimberlianne Podlas
• The Media's Role in the Cultural Production of Knowledge p. 123
• Framing p. 124
• Narrative Frames p. 127
• Heuristic Processing p. 128
• The Media's Contribution to the Teen Sexting Epidemic p. 129
• Adult Sexting vs. Adolescent Sexting p. 130
• The Outbreak of Media Coverage p. 132
• Differences in Coverage p. 133
• The Realities and the Coverage p. 134
• The Cosmogirl Survey p. 136
• "News'" of the Teen Sexting Epidemic p. 137
• Sexting as Child Pornography p. 139
• The Impact of the Child Pornography Frame p. 141
• Stories of Suicide p. 141
• Moral Panic p. 142
• Reconstructing Logan p. 143
• The Media's Impact on the Legislative Agenda and Legal Policy p. 145
• Conclusion p. 147
• Bibliography p. 148
• Part 3 Legal and Educational Issues
• 7 The First Amendment p. 155 Julia Halloran McLaughlin
• Teens, the First Amendment, and Sexually Explicit Material p. 156
• Traditional U.S. Supreme Court Precedent Exploring the First Amendment Rights of Minors p. 157
• Traditional First Amendment School Speech Precedent and Its Likely Application to Sexting Behavior p. 161
• Courts Apply Tinker to School Discipline of Sexually Suggestive Posts p. 166
• Child Pornography Law and Teen Sexting p. 167
• The Supreme Court Defines Child Pornography as Unprotected Speech Integral to Criminal Conduct p. 168
• Courts Address Teens Who Sext in Relationship to Child Pornography Law p. 169
• Debate Surrounding the Application of Youth Free Speech Rights in Relationship to Sexting p. 170
• Implications of Denying or Recognizing a Teen's Free Speech Right to Sext p. 173
• Bibliography p. 174
• 8 Child Pornography Statutes and New Legislation p. 177 Susan Hanley Duncan
• Federal Law p. 178
• State Law p. 182
• Provisions Creating a New Offense p. 183
• Examples p. 183
• Provisions Exempting Minors from Registering on Sex Offender List p. 185
• Punishment Provisions p. 185
• Creating Education and Prevention Programs p. 186
• Provisions Outlining Affirmative Defenses p. 187
• Examples p. 187
• Prosecutions p. 188
• A.H. v. State p. 189
• State v. D.H. p. 190
• State v. Vezzoni p. 191
• Prosecutions p. 191
• Analysis p. 192
• Do Not Prohibit Conduct That Is Protected by the First Amendment p. 193
• Consider Including Different Levels of Culpability p. 194
• Consider Whether to Include Any Affirmative Defenses p. 194
• Consider Specifically Exempting Minor Sexting Offenders from Registering on Any Type of Sex Offender Lists and Address Whether Records Can Be Expunged p. 195
• Consider Including Options That Allow for Public Service, Education, and Restorative Practices p. 195
• Conclusion p. 199
• Bibliography p. 199
• 9 Alternative and International Approaches p. 203 Matthew Willis and Bodean Hedwards
• The Case for Alternative Responses p. 203
• Education and Awareness Programs p. 205
• The Role of Schools p. 218
• Other Alternative Responses p. 219
• Diversion p. 219
• Technological Responses p. 219
• Indigenous Australians: A Case Study p. 221
• Conclusion p. 225
• Bibliography p. 225
• 10 Civil and Tort Liability p. 229 Todd C. Hiestand
• Intentional Infliction of Emotional Harm p. 231
• Extreme and Outrageous Conduct p. 231
• Level of Intent or Recklessness p. 236
• Severe Emotional Harm p. 238
• Invasion of Privacy p. 240
• Publicity Given to Private Life p. 241
• Private and Highly Offensive p. 242
• Consent p. 243
• Evaporating Privacy p. 244
• Defining Publicity p. 245
• Intrusion upon Seclusion p. 248
• Degree of Intrusion p. 249
• Appropriation of Name or Likeness p. 251
• Publicity Placing the Person in False Light p. 254
• Statutory Private Right of Action p. 255
• Practical Concerns in Civil Liability p. 256
• Conclusion p. 257
• Bibliography p. 258
• 11 School Administration, Liability, and Policy p. 261 Kathleen Conn
• Administrators' Duty to Protect Students from Bullying p. 262
• Administrator Liability for Failing to Protect Students from Face-to-Face Bullying p. 263
• Administrator Liability Predicated on Negligence p. 264
• Administrator Liability Predicated on Violation of Section 1983 p. 265
• School District Liability Predicated on Administrators' Violation of Title IX p. 267
• Administrator Liability Predicated on Violation of Statutes Protecting Special Needs Students p. 268
• Administrator Liability Predicated on Violation of State Anti-Bullying Statutes p. 271
• Administrator Liability Predicated on State Anti-Discrimination Statutes p. 272
• Administrator Liability Predicated on Protected Status of Students p. 273
• Summary of Administrator Liability for Failing to Protect Students from Face-to-Face Bullying p. 274
• Administrators' Liability for Failing to Protect Students from Cyberbullying p. 275
• Relevance of Anti-Cyberbullying Laws p. 277
• School Districts' and Administrators' Liability for Student Suicides Following Sexting p. 278
• Jessica Logan's Story p. 280
• Hope Whitsell's Story p. 281
• Amanda Todd's Story p. 282
• Tyler Clementi's Story p. 283
• Recommendations p. 284
• A Criminal Prosecution Gone Sour p. 285
• What Schools Need to Do p. 286
• The Changing American Society p. 288
• Final Words p. 289
• Bibliography p. 291
• Index p. 295