Looking for Information : a survey of research on information seeking, needs and behavior

"Looking for Information: A Survey of Research on Information Seeking, Needs, and Behavior" reviews more than 50 years of research on information seeking and related topics, and contains over 1,300 citations to relevant works. Now in its third edition, this book is the most comprehensive text on the topics of information seeking, information behavior and information practices. Coverage includes the nature of information, information needs and uses, sensemaking, information avoidance, communication among scientists and scholars, relevant social and psychological theories, models of information behavior, and applicable research methodologies. Interdisciplinary in the choice of examples, the book cites research in information studies, communication, education, management, medicine, sociology and psychology. The book is intended for students and scholars in library and information science, communication, education and related disciplines. Presenting a broad view of these topics, this text is suitable as a companion for courses ranging from undergraduate level to doctoral studies related to information-seeking, information practices and information behavior. In addition, it is a useful reference guide for established scholars.

• List of Figures and Tables p. xi
• Editorial Advisory Board p. xiii
• Preface p. xv
• Part 1 Introductions and Examples
• 1 Information Behavior: An Introduction p. 3
• 1.1 Introduction p. 3
• 1.1.1 A Bit of Vocabulary p. 4
• 1.1.2 Emphasizing People Rather Than Systems p. 5
• 1.1.3 Ten Myths About Information and Information Seeking p. 7
• 1.1.4 When, Why, and Where Information Behavior has been Studied p. 10
• 1.1.5 The Contexts in Which Information Behavior Is Investigated p. 13
• 1.1.6 The Scope of "Information Behavior" p. 14
• 1.2 How This Book Is Organized, and How to Use It p. 15
• 1.2.1 Organization of the Chapters p. 15
• 1.2.2 Which Chapters to Read If... p. 16
• 2 Common Examples of Information Behavior p. 19
• 2.1 Six Information Seeking Scenarios p. 20
• 2.1.1 Buying Products p. 20
• 2.1.2 Finding Information in a Library p. 24
• 2.1.3 Healing a Patient p. 27
• 2.1.4 Betting on Race Horses p. 30
• 2.1.5 Finding the Law p. 34
• 2.1.6 "I Want to Know More about Cancer" p. 36
• 2.2 Summary p. 39
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 41
• Part 2 Concepts Relevant to Information Behavior
• 3 The Concept of Information p. 45
• 3.1 Searching for a Definition of Information p. 46
• 3.1.1 Explicating "Information" p. 47
• 3.1.2 The Concept of Information p. 48
• 3.1.3 Typologies of Information Concepts p. 49
• 3.2 Definitions of Information and their Problems p. 51
• 3.2.1 The Influential and Restrictive "Information Theory" p. 52
• 3.2.2 Five Problematic Issues in Defining Information p. 56
• 3.2.3 Utility as a Requirement p. 57
• 3.2.4 Physicality as a Requirement p. 61
• 3.2.5 Structure/Process as a Requirement p. 62
• 3.2.6 Intentionality as a Requirement p. 66
• 3.2.7 Truth as a Requirement p. 67
• 3.3 Must there be a Universal Definition of Information? p. 68
• 3.4 Distinctions among Information, Knowledge, and Data p. 72
• 3.5 Summary p. 73
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 75
• 4 Information Needs and Information Seeking p. 77
• 4.1 The Motivational Puzzle p. 77
• 4.1.1 What Is a "Need?" p. 78
• 4.1.2 Needs versus Demands p. 80
• 4.2 Four Scholars Ponder Information Needs p. 81
• 4.2.1 Seeking Answers p. 81
• 4.2.2 Reducing Uncertainty p. 82
• 4.2.3 Making Sense p. 84
• 4.2.4 The Spectrum of Motivations p. 85
• 4.3 The Trouble with Information Needs p. 87
• 4.4 Information Seeking and Information Behavior p. 89
• 4.5 Summary p. 91
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 92
• 5 Related Concepts p. 95
• 5.1 Decision Making p. 96
• 5.1.1 Making Decisions p. 96
• 5.1.2 Solving Problems p. 99
• 5.2 Browsing, Etc. p. 100
• 5.2.1 Browsing, Scanning, Encountering, and Serendipity p. 100
• 5.2.2 Additional Distinctions p. 102
• 5.3 Relevance, Pertinence, and Salience p. 104
• 5.3.1 Relevance and Pertinence p. 104
• 5.3.2 Relevance in Information Retrieval p. 106
• 5.3.3 Salience p. 108
• 5.4 Avoiding Information p. 109
• 5.4.1 Selective Exposure and Information Avoidance p. 109
• 5.4.2 Knowledge Gaps and Information Poverty p. 113
• 5.4.3 Information Overload and Anxiety p. 115
• 5.5 Information versus Entertainment p. 120
• 5.6 Sharing and Collaboration p. 127
• 5.7 Summary p. 129
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 129
• Part 3 Models, Paradigms, and Theories in the Study of Information Behavior
• 6 Models of Information Behavior p. 133
• 6.1 Models p. 134
• 6.1.1 What is a Model? p. 134
• 6.1.2 Models of Information Seeking p. 135
• 6.2 Examples of Information Seeking Models p. 139
• 6.2.1 The First Wilson Model p. 139
• 6.2.2 The Krikelas Model p. 140
• 6.2.3 The Ellis Model p. 143
• 6.2.4 The Kuhlthau Model p. 145
• 6.2.5 The Leckie Model p. 146
• 6.2.6 The Byström and Järvelin Model p. 148
• 6.2.7 The Savolainen Model p. 149
• 6.2.8 The Johnson Model p. 151
• 6.2.9 The Second Wilson Model p. 155
• 6.2.10 Comparing the Models p. 157
• 6.2.11 Additional Models p. 158
• Recommend for Further Reading p. 161
• 7 Metatheories, Paradigms, and Theories p. 163
• 7.1 Metatheories, Perspectives, and Paradigms p. 164
• 7.1.1 Metatheories and the Great Divide p. 164
• 7.1.2 Perspectives and Paradigms p. 166
• 7.2 Theories p. 168
• 7.2.1 What Is a Theory? p. 168
• 7.2.2 Levels of Theory p. 170
• 7.3 Sources of Theory in Information Seeking p. 172
• 7.4 Objectivist Research Paradigms p. 174
• 7.4.1 Zipf's Principle of Least Effort and Cost-Benefit p. 175
• 7.4.2 Uses and Gratifications and Expectancy Theory p. 178
• 7.4.3 Uncertainty Management Theory, etc. p. 184
• 7.4.4 Other Objectivist Theories p. 185
• 7.5 Interpretivist Research Paradigms p. 187
• 7.5.1 Constructivist, Activity Theory, and Sense-making p. 187
• 7.5.2 Social Constructionism and Discourse Analysis p. 190
• 7.5.3 Phenomenology p. 192
• 7.5.4 Other Interpretivist Paradigms p. 192
• 7.6 Mapping the Theoretical Influences on Authors p. 194
• 7.7 Summary p. 196
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 197
• Part 4 Methods for Studying Information Behavior
• 8 The Research Process p. 201
• 8.1 Relating Theory to Methodology p. 201
• 8.1.1 Why We Need Methods p. 202
• 8.1.2 Techniques of Measurement and Analysis p. 204
• 8.2 Basic Considerations in Research p. 205
• 8.2.1 Stages of Research p. 205
• 8.2.2 Induction and Deduction p. 207
• 8.2.3 Validity and Reliability p. 208
• 8.2.4 Purpose, Units, and Time p. 211
• 8.2.5 Ethics in Research p. 213
• 8.3 Summary p. 216
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 218
• 9 Methods: Examples by Type p. 221
• 9.1 Types and Examples of Methods p. 222
• 9.1.1 The Case Study: Analyzing an Analyst p. 222
• 9.1.2 Laboratory Experiments: Shopping for Cars p. 227
• 9.1.3 Field Experiments: Reading the Label p. 232
• 9.1.4 Postal Surveys: Information Needs and Issue Relevance p. 235
• 9.1.5 E-mail and Web Surveys: Studying Scholars p. 238
• 9.1.6 Brief Interviews: Studies of Everyday Folks p. 240
• 9.1.7 Intensive Interviews: The Lives of Janitors and Brothers p. 246
• 9.1.8 Focus Group Interviews: Doctors and Nurses Search p. 250
• 9.1.9 Network Analysis: Mongols and Managers p. 252
• 9.1.10 Discourse Analysis: Repertoires and Practices p. 253
• 9.1.11 Diaries and Experience Sampling: Incidents and Alarms p. 254
• 9.1.12 Unobtrusive Approaches: Historical Analysis p. 257
• 9.1.13 Unobtrusive Approaches: Content Analysis p. 260
• 9.1.14 Mixed/Multiple Methods p. 262
• 9.1.15 Meta-Analysis p. 264
• 9.2 Summary p. 265
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 266
• Part 5 Research Results and Reflections
• 10 Reviewing the Research: Its History, Size, and Topics p. 271
• 10.1 Overview of Part Five p. 271
• 10.1.1 The History of Studying Information Behavior p. 272
• 10.1.2 Estimating the Size of the Literature p. 274
• 10.1.3 Contexts and Categories p. 277
• 10.1.4 Choosing Examples of Studies p. 280
• 10.2 Summary p. 282
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 283
• 11 Research by Occupation p. 285
• 11.1 By Occupational Category p. 285
• 11.1.1 Scientists and Engineers p. 287
• 11.1.2 Social Scientists p. 294
• 11.1.3 Humanities Scholars p. 297
• 11.1.4 Health Care Providers p. 301
• 11.1.5 Managers p. 309
• 11.1.6 Journalists p. 313
• 11.1.7 Lawyers p. 315
• 11.1.8 Farmers p. 317
• 11.1.9 Other Occupations p. 318
• 11.2 Summary p. 321
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 322
• 12 Research by Social Role and Demographic Group p. 325
• 12.1 Two Other Ways of Studying People p. 326
• 12.2 By Role p. 326
• 12.2.1 Citizen or Voter p. 328
• 12.2.2 Consumer p. 333
• 12.2.3 Hobbyist p. 336
• 12.2.4 Gatekeeper p. 338
• 12.2.5 Patient p. 340
• 12.2.6 Students p. 346
• 12.2.7 Other Roles p. 348
• 12.3 By Demographic Group p. 349
• 12.3.1 Age p. 349
• 12.3.2 Racial and Ethnolinguistic Minorities p. 355
• 12.3.3 Socioeconomic Status p. 357
• 12.3.4 Other Demographic Groups p. 360
• 12.4 Summary p. 362
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 362
• 13 Reviewing, Critiquing, Concluding p. 365
• 13.1 Reviewing p. 365
• 13.2 Critiquing p. 368
• 13.2.1 A History of Complaint p. 368
• 13.2.2 Other Considerations p. 370
• 13.3 Conclusions and Trends p. 373
• 13.3.1 Eight Lessons of Information Behavior Research p. 375
• 13.3.2 Trends and Final Thoughts p. 378
• Recommended for Further Reading p. 379
• Appendix A Glossary p. 381
• Appendix B Questions for Discussion and Application p. 393
• References p. 407
• Subject Index p. 481