Critique of pure reason

In his monumental Critique of Pure Reason, German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) argues that human knowledge is limited by the capacity for perception. He attempts a logical designation of two varieties of knowledge: a posteriori, the knowledge acquired through experience; and a priori, knowledge not derived through experience. Kant maintains that the most practical forms of human knowledge employ the a priori judgments that are possible only when the mind determines the conditions of its own experience. This accurate translation by J. M. Meiklejohn offers a simple and direct rendering of Kant's work that is suitable for readers at all levels.

• Introduction
• I. Of the Difference between Pure and Empirical Knowledge p. 1
• II. The Human Intellect, even in an unphilosophical state, is in possession of certain cognitions a priori p. 2
• III. Philosophy stands in need of a Science which shall determine the possibility, principles, and extent of Human Knowledge a priori p. 4
• IV. Of the Difference between Analytical and Synthetical Judgments p. 7
• V. In all Theoretical Sciences of Reason, Synthetical Judgments a priori are contained as Principles p. 9
• VI. The Universal Problem of Pure Reason p. 12
• VII. Idea and Division of a Particular Science, under the Name of a Critique of Pure Reason p. 15
• Transcendental Doctrine of Elements
• Part I. Transcendental AEsthetic
• Introductory p. 21
• Section I. Of Space
• Metaphysical Exposition of this Conception p. 23
• Transcendental Exposition of the Conception of Space p. 25
• Conclusions from the foregoing Conceptions p. 25
• Section II. Of Time
• Metaphysical Exposition of this Conception p. 28
• Transcendental Exposition of the Conception of Time p. 29
• Conclusions from the above Conceptions p. 30
• Elucidation p. 32
• General Remarks on Transcendental AEsthetic p. 35
• Part II. Transcendental Logic
• I. Of Logic in general p. 44
• II. Of Transcendental Logic p. 47
• III. Of the Division of General Logic into Analytic and Dialectic p. 48
• IV. Of the Division of Transcendental Logic into Transcendental Analytic and Dialectic p. 51
• Division 1 Transcendental Analytic p. 52
• Book I. Analytic of Conceptions p. 53
• Chap. I. Of the Transcendental Clue to the Discovery of all Pure Conceptions of the Understanding p. 53
• Section I. Of the Logical use of the Understanding in general p. 54
• Section II. Of the Logical Function of the Understanding in Judgments p. 55
• Section III. Of the Pure Conceptions of the Understanding, or Categories p. 60
• Chap. II. Of the Deduction of the Pure Conceptions of the Understanding
• Section I. Of the Principles of Transcendental Deduction in general p. 68
• Transition to the Transcendental Deduction of the Categories p. 72
• Section II. Of the Possibility of a Conjunction of the manifold representations given by Sense p. 75
• Of the Originally Synthetical Unity of Apperception p. 76
• The Principle of the Synthetical Unity of Apperception is the highest Principle of all exercise of the Understanding p. 79
• What Objective Unity of Self-consciousness is p. 80
• The Logical Form of all Judgments consists in the Objective Unity of Apperception of the Conceptions contained therein p. 81
• All Sensuous Intuitions are subject to the Categories, as Conditions under which alone the manifold contents of them can be united in one Consciousness p. 82
• Observation p. 83
• In Cognition, its Application to Objects of Experience is the only legitimate use of the Category p. 84
• Of the Application of the Categories to Objects of the Senses in general p. 86
• Transcendental Deduction of the universally possible employment in experience of the Pure Conceptions of the Understanding p. 91
• Result of this Deduction of the Conceptions of the Understanding p. 94
• Short view of the above Deduction p. 96
• Book II. Analytic of Principles p. 97
• Of the Transcendental Faculty of Judgment in general p. 98
• Chap. I. Of the Schematism of the Pure Conceptions of the Understanding p. 100
• Chap. II. System of all Principles of the Pure Understanding p. 106
• Section I. Of the Supreme Principle of all Analytical Judgments p. 108
• Section II. Of the Supreme Principle of all Synthetical Judgments p. 110
• Section III. Systematic Representations of all Synthetical Principles thereof p. 112
• I. Axioms of Intuition p. 115
• II. Anticipations of Perception p. 117
• III. Analogies of Experience p. 122
• A. First Analogy.--Principle of the Permanence of Substance p. 124
• B. Second Analogy.--Principle of the Succession of Time p. 128
• C. Third Analogy.--Principle of Coexistence p. 138
• IV. The Postulates of Empirical Thought p. 142
• Refutation of Idealism p. 147
• General Remark on the System of Principles p. 153
• Chap. III. Of the Ground of the division of all objects into Phenomena and Noumena p. 156
• Appendix Of the Equivocal Nature or Amphiboly of the Conceptions of Reflection from the Confusion of the Transcendental with the Empirical use of the Understanding p. 168
• Remark on the Amphiboly of the Conceptions of Reflection p. 172
• Division 2 Transcendental Dialectic
• I. Of Transcendental Illusory Appearance p. 186
• II. Of Pure Reason as the Seat of Transcendental Illusory Appearance p. 189
• A. Of Reason in General p. 189
• B. Of the Logical Use of Reason p. 192
• C. Of the Pure Use of Reason p. 193
• Book I. Of the Conceptions of Pure Reason p. 196
• Section I. Of Ideas in General p. 197
• Section II. Of Transcendental Ideas p. 202
• Section III. System of Transcendental Ideas p. 209
• Book II. Of the Dialectical Procedure of Pure Reason p. 212
• Book I. Of the Conceptions of Pure Reason p. 196
• Refutation of the Argument of Mendelssohn for the Substantiality or Permanence of the Soul p. 221
• Conclusion of the Solution of the Psychological Paralogism p. 227
• General Remark on the Transition from Rational Psychology to Cosmology p. 228
• Chap. II. The Antinomy of Pure Reason p. 230
• Section I. System of Cosmological Ideas p. 232
• Section II. Antithetic of Pure Reason p. 238
• First Conflict of the Transcendental Ideas p. 241
• Second Conflict of the Transcendental Ideas p. 246
• Third Conflict of the Transcendental Ideas p. 252
• Fourth Conflict of the Transcendental Ideas p. 257
• Section III. Of the Interest of Reason in these Self-contradictions p. 262
• Section IV. Of the Necessity Imposed upon Pure Reason of presenting a Solution of its Transcendental Problems p. 270
• Section V. Sceptical Exposition of the Cosmological Problems presented in the four Transcendental Ideas p. 275
• Section VI. Transcendental Idealism as the Key to the Solution of Pure Cosmological Dialectic p. 278
• Section VII. Critical Solution of the Cosmological Problems p. 281
• Section VIII. Regulative Principle of Pure Reason in relation to the Cosmological Ideas p. 287
• Section IX. Of the Empirical Use of the Regulative Principle of Reason, with regard to the Cosmological Ideas p. 291
• I. Solution of the Cosmological Idea of the Totality of the Composition of Phenomena in the Universe p. 292
• II. Solution of the Cosmological Idea of the Totality of the Division of a Whole given in Intuition p. 295
• Concluding Remark on the Solution of the Transcendental Mathematical Ideas--and Introductory to the Solution of the Dynamical Ideas p. 297
• III. Solution of the Cosmological Idea of the Totality of the Deduction of Cosmical Events from their Causes p. 299
• Possibility of Freedom in Harmony with the Universal Law of Natural Necessity p. 302
• Exposition of the Cosmological Idea of Freedom in Harmony with the Universal Law of Natural Necessity p. 304
• IV. Solution of the Cosmological Idea of the Totality of the Dependence of Phenomenal Existences p. 314
• Concluding Remarks on the Antinomy of Pure Reason p. 317
• Chap. III. The Ideal of Pure Reason
• Section I. Of the Ideal in General p. 318
• Section II. Of the Transcendental Ideal p. 320
• Section III. Of the Arguments Employed by Speculative Reason in Proof of the Existence of a Supreme Being p. 327
• Section IV. Of the Impossibility of an Ontological Proof of the Existence of God p. 331
• Section V. Of the Impossibility of a Cosmological Proof of the Existence of God p. 337
• Detection and Explanation of the Dialectical Illusion in all Transcendental Arguments for the Existence of a Necessary Being p. 344
• Section VI. Of the Impossibility of a Physico-Theological Proof p. 347
• Section VII. Critique of all Theology based upon Speculative Principles of Reason p. 353
• Appendix Of the Regulative Employment of the Ideas of Pure Reason p. 359
• Of the Ultimate End of the Natural Dialectic of Human Reason p. 375
• Transcendental Doctrine of Method
• Introduction p. 397
• Chap. I. The Discipline of Pure Reason p. 398
• Section I. The Discipline of Pure Reason in the Sphere of Dogmatism p. 400
• Section II. The Discipline of Pure Reason in Polemics p. 415
• Scepticism Not a Permanent State for Human Reason p. 425
• Section III. The Discipline of Pure Reason in Hypothesis p. 432
• Section IV. The Discipline of Pure Reason in Relation to Proofs p. 439
• Chap. II. The Canon of Pure Reason p. 446
• Section I. Of the Ultimate End of the Pure Use of Reason p. 447
• Section II. Of the Ideal of the Summum Bonum as a Determining Ground of the ultimate End of Pure Reason p. 451
• Section III. Of Opinion, Knowledge, and Belief p. 460
• Chap. III. The Architectonic of Pure Reason p. 466
• Chap. IV. The History of Pure Reason p. 477